Naxals Are Not Friends

Naxals have released the three of the four abducted policemen in Lakhisarai in Bihar. The news came as a major relief to the families of these policemen, who would be hailed as brave and may even be honoured for surviving a definite wrath of their abductors. However, it was no merit of theirs that they are free now. But definitely, apart from other things, the hostage crisis has absolved all of them of all the guilt and sin arising out of any act of corruption or dereliction of duties that they may (must) have done during their service in uniform. So, while the three-day crisis has provided a blanket of santity to the services of these policemen on one hand, it has, on the other, exposed the myth of Maoist Idealogy. It has also betrayed the dilemma of the elected governance and confusion prevailing in the government machinery over the strategy to deal with crimes related to or committed in the name of naxalism.

Before setting three of the hostages free, the Naxals killed one havildar, Lucas Tete. Apart from the family members of Tete, the killing may not be remembered by many. But his killing has exposed the myth of naxal ideology. The myth, that the naxals are fighting for poor and oppressed is not true for, Tete belonged to a poor tribal family. That they are fighting against a governance that is oppressive is not true for, they killed a defenceless poor tribal when they felt that the government forces were closing in and that the dead body of a tribal policeman would mount pressure on the government to go slow in the combing operations. That, naxals do not indulge in violence is not true for killing of an innocent bread earner who opted for civilised means to run his family is nothing else but violence. Can ever the naxals who killed Tete explain as to why did they choose the poor tribal man to convey their message to the government? Naxal patrons have launched a multi-pronged attack on the parliamentary democracy and terrorism is one of the strategy currently adopted by them.

One thing that I would like to make clear is, the maoists do not believe in documenting things that they don't want themselves to be remembered for, notwithstanding the fact that they don't shy from doing such things. This explains why even in this case, the so-called naxal spokesperson Avinash claimed that naxals do not indulge in violence. Their methodology was surprisingly prophesied in 1948-49 by George Orwell in a novel. Chinese school texts today are standing testimony to that. They don't teach about 1962 war and capture of Indian territories in Aksai Chin and also Tibet. So, no intellectuals should harbour any illusion that naxalism is for the uplift of downtrodden and the proletariat. Nothing of that sort seems to be in store for people even if naxals succeed in capturing political power in the country.

On the other hand, government is at best confused in dealing with naxal crimes. Government is right in saying that the people fighting for naxalism are our own people and they need to be treated with care. But can naxals be allowed to use arms against rest of the community and against those who are earning bread for their families? Ain't ordinary criminals our own people? Why do we adopt a different approach and have an entirely different mindset while dealing with them? Going by naxal ideology everyone who feels that he has been denied his due (either in historical perspective or in current situation) should took shelter under guns, and then every dissatisfied group should weild arms and wage war against 'an oppressive regime'. Anarchy would prevail. But, government lacks the vision of sifting through an ideology and a crime.

Government at all levels has failed to ensure that arms are not smuggled, illegal weapons are not manufactured and Lathiwala policemen are ubiquitous. No need to talk of development and employment schemes which have failed to include all families in the country. Government needs to be as agile and effective in implementing its schemes and the rule of law as the naxals are in their multi-pronged attack at the government in order to seize political power between 2030 and 2050.

Delhi Rains

It's been raining in New Delhi for days now. Just couple of weeks ago, people all over the place, particularly on television, were anxious that the monsoon was not hitting the city and the summer heat refused to wean. Now, the same people have problems with the rains when this August has already become the wettest one in a decade and it is well on the road to become the wettest ever.

Soon, we will see people attributing this August rains to climate change but only they are finished with the cynicism about CWG irregularities and its negative linkage with the monsoonal rains. Then, the residents of the city will freely converse in metro trains, city buses and all the places of public gathering that the end of the world is near as the climatic change has started showing its effects. But they are less concerned about the fact that this variation over a period of 8-10 years is only marginal one given the deviation in annual weather pattern on the planet in its geological past.

But, what everyone is missing is poor governance of drainage in the national capital. Historians claim that drainage system of Delhi was far more efficient and well managed during the time of Shershah who ruled from Rohtas in Bihar. Even during the rule of the Tomars in the early medieval period the city drainage was better. An ordinary citizen can expect this much from the city government as well as the union urban development ministry. A well managed drainage will itself help in checking in the dengue, malaria, typhoid and a several kinds of dysentery. All these diseases have plagued the city for years now. This will also help government help residents better.

Maintenance of drainage will not only give relief to the people who have been paying taxes for its upkeep(?), it will also help keeping the roads hassle-free ride and drive in the city. Delhi will look cleaner and pavement dwellers will also be served better.

Do I need to enumerate more benefits of an efficient drainage system in Delhi, which is aspiring to become a world class city from a walled city?

Whatever, the monsoonal rains has made people forget the real heat intensity in the city and people look more calm off road; vegetation has started looking greener. Ain't these things enough to welcome rains? Rain please don't go away!

India@63: 5,000 Years Old

It was again an annual day today (August, 15) which was full of patriotic talks, internet chats, political speeches and rhetorics of India being young at 63. Prime Minister Manmohan Singh made it more than obvious as to what does this day mean to people he represents. I would like to draw attention to Manmohan Singh's indifference to the Red Fort ceremony that once captured the imagination of the prime ministers and people alike. As he pulled the rope to unfurl the Tri-colour, a flag that symbolizes Indian brand of patriotism, he forgot even to look up at the Tiranga in salutation. He was more concerned about the business next in hand, that is, to read the speech text given to him. This also explains why he does not care about the programmes and policies after putting them into effect. He forgets to see whether the policies are producing the results they were originally meant to.

Whatever, I was talking about India turning 63 today. I have a serious objection to this concept. To me it's an insult to all those who contributed towards shaping and making this nation but worked in pre-1947 age. If my knowledge of Indian history is correct then the country had a very developed and flourishing urban civilization some 5000 years ago. And, the name "India" owes to none but this very civilization known to us as Indus Valley Civilization. Also, some 9000 years ago, the old India had a well established village community based on settled agriculture at Mehrgarh (Pakistan). To me, calling India a nation just 63 years old is not correct and it betrays the colonial hangover on the Indian psyche. It denounces everything that was Indian before 1947. India did not begin to breathe in 1947. It was very much in shape much much before that.

The known limits of Indus valley civilization is Shortughai near Oxus river to Daimabad in the Deccan. It could have been wider than that as we lack knowledge about the rest. During Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka India was very much in shape. In middle ages the greatest emperor of India, Akbar the Great and Aurangzeb ruled over India that was bigger than what its present form. Colonial India was certainly divided and divisive.

But when India was freed from foreign rule, the colonial rulers made it believe that it is a New Nation. It can not sustain on its own. True, economically India was lifeless for all practical purpose. But it was not new, rather older than its colonial rulers. But, somehow they convinced the Indian leadership that India lacked courage, spirit, capability and most of all confidence to walk on its own feet, just like an infant can not do anything on its own.

So, now having known that India did not born in 1947, I just can not buy the statement and the argument for it that India is 63. This is ridiculous and an affront to the great civilizations that the country nourished in its past. I hope a civilization, a nation, a people who are at least 5000 years old will not be insulted by terming them 63 year old which need other's help to stand upright.

Celebrating Independence Day is good. A day chosen for the occasion is also good. But that day should be celebrated in a way to remind us that if we stand divided outsiders will take advantage of it to impose a new form of colonialism. This day should keep us beware of such a situation.

Happy Independence Day!

Bhopal Gas Tragedy: Rehabilitation

After 26 years of inaction, the government has shown some intent to apply balm on the victims of the Bhopal Gas Tragedy. But spare a thought why it took 26 years to get into ACTIVE mode? Why is it doing this now? Why it could not be done earlier? And, also what is the real issue to be addressed in this whole INTELLECTUAL debate?

Media must take some credit for government minimum effort to own its responsibility towards its own citizens who are in abundance and who can not be washed out by a single Bhopal like man made disaster. In 1984, we lost 20,000 odd brethren but we still have more than 1200 million people a part of which can be asked to pay price for someone else's fault. And, then again may wait for another quarter of a century to get public attention- provided media remained as powerful then as it is today.

Whatever, I don't want to digress from the very fundamental question of rehabilitation of the victims- direct (the then living people who braved the poisonous leakage of the gas on the fateful night of December, 1984) and indirect, who born maimed after that unfortunate incident and still those who are forced to gulp toxic water being supplied to their houses. In my sense of term rehabilitation includes the issue of compensation and fixing accountability of those who caused or allowed to be caused an industrial disaster of this scale. Those officers who failed to inform the hapless masses of Bhopal that a wet cloth or handkerchief could save hundreds of lives just by covering their nostrils and faces by it.

First, fixing responsibility. Who was responsible for the disaster. The Bhopal court has come out with its verdict. No comment on that. The court acted as law and prosecutors guided it. Is Warren Anderson responsible for the disaster? No, because he was not operating the gas chamber. Yes, not because he caused the leakage but because he allowed such leniency in ensuring safety that the leakage occurred. If you are dealing in cobra, you can not afford to take your eyes off it when it is aiming at you. Arguments are endless.

Second, compensation. Victims had already got their share with the approval of the honourable supreme court. But, the amount was paltry. And, this looks a mockery made out of people's lives when we consider that the court agreed for 470 million dollars (as insurance sum plus interests) when the government put the figure of dead at 3,787. Was the apex court of the land cheated?

Now the group of ministers acting on the direction of the Prime Minister has recommended a few slabs of compensation with Rs 10Lakh for every dead person. What a way to compensate after 26 years! Government would end up giving crores of rupees to the victims and the families of the victims of the Bhopal Gas Tragedy. But will the Dow Chemicals, the inheritor of Union Carbide's assets and its successor pay this sum. It seems highly unlikely.

So, from where the government will arrange this sum? Will the taxpayers of the country will bear the burden- essentially thrust upon them by an MNC? The countrymen will be more than happy to pay their money to their Bhopal brethren but should they? Should Indian lives be so cheap that an MNC or its superpower boss in the USA can be absolved of everything that happened on the soil of India? Why?

Finally, rehabilitation. How to rehabilitate- mentally, physically, socially, economically, judicially? How can a child born maimed after the tragedy be rehabilitated? Can the government ever rehabilitate the souls of the victims?

Think it over. Attempts be made that lives are not lost the way it did in Bhopal roughly two months after Indira Gandhi was assassinated.

BUDGET 2010-11: LAST MAN'S PERSPECTIVE

I am not a Gandhian nor do I have absolute faith in Gandhian philosophy but I do admire Gandhiji's idea of uplift of the last man of society. I do believe this is the ultimate test of governance in any society. If a government is able to reach and listen to the pain of the last man of society then the government deserves the mandate to rule and make policies for the whole nation. And here Finance Minister Pranab Mukherjee and for that matter the UPA government failed to clear the test.

Mukherjee's budget is by no means a path breaking budget and people have evaluated it largely on the premise of which side of the table they are sitting. That the Budget proposals are good for corporate houses is evident from the immediate response from the sensex which hardly reflects the health of our economy and wealth of a common man. Budget is a statement on how the county will be governed financially in the next one year. I would like to consider a few proposals given by our finance minister.

Mukherjee talks of bringing second green revolution in eastern states, precisely, West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand and Orissa. And he thinks Rs 400 crore for four states that are agriculturally backward is good enough to achieve that! This is not prudent, pragmatic, well-intentioned and economic budgeting. This is political budgeting and it cannot serve the interests of the last man of our society. On the top of it, that man is battling with very high food prices which have not been taken care of in Pranabda's budget.

Arguments were put forth by people of all sides on whether budget is the right tool to tame soaring inflation. I do believe, being an annual financial statement budget must address the day-to-day financial problems of the people, of the nation. For long term planning, we have a Planning Commission and also a National Development Council which some people have forgotten that it ever existed. Here too politics is eating up economics. In an age of utmost media scrutiny and unimaginable reach made possible by media, every finance minister tends to become more political than humane and economic. The last man suffers in consequence.

However, the most important thing from aam aadmi's perspective is the hike in petrol and diesel prices. A five percent basic duty and a hike of Re.1 per litre resulted in petrol costing nearly Rs 3 more per litre. And, this is state economics that hits the common man the hardest. Pranab Mukherjee's proposals will ensure that all the articles get dearer in the next one year because the transportation cost for almost everything will go up. Even the railway transportation will go costlier despite the fact that Mamata Banerjee refused to show fiscal prudence by not hiking passenger fare and freight charges.

To add, we have shortage of foodgrains available in the market with the purchasing power that we individually enjoy today. Our public distribution system shows no sign of improvement and it is sure that it won't go on corrected lines during 2010-11 fiscal. This means that the fight for Roti is going to only intensify in the ensuing year. For service sector earning people especially those on the higher side of tax slabs, Mr Finance Minister has given some relief to counter that intensifying struggle for existence but the common man, forget the last man, will only become commoner in the coming year. This would further swing the (im)balance in favour of the heavier side.

If this is the budget for an aam aadmi, it is no surprise that he does not feel for the budget that has become a mere ritual for the country to follow. And if this is so, I raise a fundamental question, do we need a finance minister in our country? This democracy is run by the parliamentarians and other legislators only in name but the real carrier of this largest democracy is our Last Men who are in millions but still wanting. This sums up our governance and perhaps democracy as well.

INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES

Patterson in his book Social Aspects of Industry said that resistance by workers against their exploitation by employer is industrial dispute.
Dankest in his book, An Introduction to Labour said that because of the nature of employment relationship disharmony between management and labour often arises and this results in Industrial Disputes.

Moore in his book, Industrial Relations and Social Order says, “Due to the conflicting objectives of employers and employees, differences often take place between them which result in industrial disputes.”

The Industrial Disputes Act of 1947 says, “Industrial disputes means any dispute or difference between employer and employees or between employers and workmen or between workmen, which is connected with employment or non-employment or the terms of employment or with the condition of labour of any person.”


Types of Industrial disputes

A. Two categories:

a. Disputes of rights
b. Disputes of interests

B. Two categories:

a. Economic Disputes
b. Non-economic Disputes


Causes of Industrial Disputes:
A. Basic causes
B. Operational causes

Basic or principal causes are as follows:

a. capitalist nature of economy
b. clash of economic interests
c. division of the product of industry (sharing the cake)
d. imperfect nature of labour market (behavioural pattern of labour market)
e. divergent objectives of the stakeholders
f. attitude of employers
g. governance of industry (industrial democracy or democracy within democracy)

Operational causes:
a. economic causes
b. working conditions for the workers
c. institutional causes (related to trade union, collective bargaining, labour practices, union security etc.)
d. psychological causes
e. personal rivalry

Machinery of settlement of industrial disputes:
Two categories:
A. Curative mechanism
B. Preventive mechanism


Causative mechanism:
a. conciliation officers (14 days)
b. board of conciliation (five members, two months)
c. council of enquiry (one member, six months)
d. labour court
e. tribunal
f. national tribunal
g. arbitration

The labour court, tribunal and national tribunal are collectively called Adjudicative Machineries and they function under one person aged not more than 65 years. He is known as the presiding officer of the concerned body.

Decisions handed over by these curative bodies are called Awards. Awards remain in operation for a minimum of one year to a maximum of three years.

Labour court adjudicates on matters related second schedule of the industrial disputes act of 1947.
National tribunal adjudicates on matters of national importance and matters related to the workers of more than one state.

Time frame is not fixed for the adjudicative machineries for pronouncing awards. But, government can specify a date by which the award is expected.

Preventive Machineries:

a. statutory mechanism
b. non-statutory mechanism

Statutory Preventive Mechanism:
a. Workers committees: In every undertaking employing 100 or more workers these committees are constituted to promote friendly relations among the stakeholders.
b. Grievance Settlement machineries: In undertaking employing more than 50 workers.
c. Standing orders: It is provided under Industrial Employment (Standing Orders) Act of 1946. It is obligatory on all the employers covered under Industrial Employment (Standing Orders) Act to frame standing orders covering conditions of employment governing relations between employers and employees.

Purpose of standing orders is to create an attitude of mind between the parties so that industrial harmony is achieved in the industrial establishment. Standing orders provide rules for settling differences or disputes on matters like attendance, demotions, promotions, dismissals, discharge, misconduct, late comings etc.

Non-statutory preventive machineries:

A. Indian Labour Conference and Standing Labour Conference are non-statutory bodies functioning at central level to settle industrial disputes. They are tri-partite bodies having representation from employers, trade unions and government. They carry out three important functions:
1. Promotion of uniformity in labour legislation
2. Laying down of a procedure for the settlement of industrial disputes
3. Discussion of all labour matters of national importance

B. Tri-partite bodies at central level:

a. Joint management councils
b. Code of discipline and code of conduct
c. Wage boards
d. Workers’ participation in management
e. Collective bargaining
f. Other tri-partite bodies at central level:

a. Implementation and evacuation committee
b. Central board for workers education
c. National productivity council
d. Industrial committees etc

C. State labour advisory boards:

KISS GEOGRAPHY: VOLCANIC LANDSCAPE

A landscape is the collection of landforms. Volcanic landforms consist of Extrusive and Intrusive landforms.

A. Extrusive Landforms: In this case lava solidifies in contact with air. Here the rate of cooling or solidification is faster and hence mineral grains are fine and not distinguishably visible to naked human eyes.
B. Intrusive Landforms: They are formed due to solidification of lava within the crust In this case lava cools or solidifies slowly, that is why the grains are bigger in size.

Volcanic materials are of two types:
A. Pyroclasts
B. Lava

In general, lava dominates the volcanic scenery. However, a volcanic landform containing no lava is possible, it would have only pyroclast. This is seen in two cases. First, when there is a closure of vent after the pyroclasts have come out, here lava gets solidified in the vent and later converts into the crust.

Second, when a thin layer of lava gets deposited over the pyroclasts and after some time the layer of lava is eroded leading to the exposure of the pyroclasts.

Pyroclasts materials are collectively called Tephra.
A large sized angular pyroclastic material or rock is called Block or Brecia.
A large oval sized lava rocks are called volcanic bombs.
Pea shaped lava rock is called Lapili. They are as small as glass marble.
Bombs and lapili solidify before they fall on the ground. This explains their round shape.
Sometimes, lava acquire vesicular shape and the lava crusts hold gases inside. Such rocks are referred to as Pumice, Scoriae or Cinders. Escaping gases make vesicles and holes in the upper solidified lava crust. Lower lava has not solidified in such structures.
The rock which is composed of a mixture of ash, dust, lapili and cinder is called Tuffs.
Hornitos are small mounds of spatter or driblets.

What are volcanoes:

The English word volcano is derived from a Greek word Vulcan who was a Roman god. According to greek mythology he was believed to be living in the interior of the earth. Going by the mythological sense of the people, volcano can be defined as the fire place of gods. No wonder in Japan, Fujiyama is still worshipped. Pele is the Hawaiian goddess of volcanoes. The term Pele’s Tears, though derived from the goddess Pele, in volcanic jargon it means teardrop shaped pyroclastic $ glassy lava thrown out in volcanic explosions, which have fused and solidified in air. In India too the land of myths, Jwalamukhi festival is related to the nature’s peculiar phenomenon in Himachal Pradesh.

The volcanic explosion, a devastating and terrible phenomenon was considered in ancient times as the expression of the anger of a god or goddess.

Coming to the science of volcano, the Penguin’s Dictionary of Geography defines volcano as a vent in the earth’s crust caused by magma forcing its way to the surface, molten rock or lava is finally , sometimes with explosive force rock fragments and ashes being thrown into the air. The emission of lava or eruptions often cause the volcano to take the form of a conical hill or mountain, the latter is gradually built up of ejected material, which is deposited most thickly round the outlet.

In other words, volcanoes are built by the eruption of molten rock and heated gases under pressure from a relatively small pipe or vent, leading from a magma reservoir at depth. Eruption may take place from the top or sides of the cone.

Structure of Volcano

A volcano is a vent or a group of closely spaced vents through which molten rocks, magma and not gases are ejected out of a deep seated source.

A volcano has three important parts:

Vent: An opening or conduit in the surface of the earth through which volcano material is ejected. A series of vents may form along a major fracture creating a fissure volcano. Volcanoes also develop with central vents and subsidiary vents on the sides of the cone.

Cone: The ejected rock material rushing out of the vent creates a cone like formation at the upper end of the vent. The cone has a steep slope and sometimes takes the form of a mountain.

Crater: A funnel shaped depression at the top or on the sides of a volcanic cone. It may be produced by an explosive eruption or by the collapse of the cone following the withdrawal of underlying lava. Its walls are almost vertical.



Volcanoes are of three types:

Extinct: Such volcanoes that don’t have any realistic possibility of magma upwelling in future are called extinct volcanoes. These volcanoes were active in the geological past. Examples are the Popa mountains in Myanmar, Mt Kilimanjaro in Africa, Mauritius, Madagascar, Malagasy and several other islands in the Indian Ocean. There are thousands of extinct volcanoes which are undergoing erosion by running water and wind and therefore look really extinct.

Dormant: Such volcanoes that have exploded in the recent past and may explode in future are known as dormant volcanoes. It is not easy to differentiate between the extinct and the dormant types of volcanoes. The Vesuvius was considered to be an extinct volcano. But it becomes dangerously active after hundreds of years. Examples are, Fujiyama and Krakatoa.

Active: Such volcanoes that have exploded recently and whose explosions may still be vivid in the public memory. Some of them emit lava after every 15 or twenty minutes. Stromboli is most well known among them. There are almost 300 active volcanoes in the the world. Examples are Mauna Loa, Mt Etna, Mt Vesuvius, Cotopaxi of Ecuador—world’s highest active volcano at 19, 600 feet.

Volcanic landscape is conical. The axis of the formation goes along the vent. Magma or lava particles solidify around the vent of a volcano. After solidification, the magma materials become igneous rocks.

Lava is of two types:
A. Felsic or Acidic
B. Mafic or Basic

Mafic lava has greater fluidity than the felsic lava and its melting point is also lower. Presence of high silica content in the Felsic lava increases its meting point. Acidic lava is of two types: Andesitic and Ignimbrite or rhyolitic lava. Andesitic lava has medium silica content while Ignimbrite lava has high silica content. Ignimbrite rocks are highly acidic. Nuee ardente is an andesitic lava flow. Lahar is also a form of andisitic lava flow. It is volcanic mud flow. Lahars cause accumulations of large quantities of sandy and rocky debris on lower slopes and surrounding areas and may form extensive plains. The plains west of central volcanic mountains of North Island of New Zealand is a good example of Lahar. A mixture of fine debris and water, derived generally from a crater lake of a dormant volcano, bursts out when eruption is resumed forming mud that rushes down the mountain side.

A vent is essentially required for the upwelling of felsic lava while the basic lava can come out through a crack or fracture, the only requirement is that the crack should have continuity with the magma chamber. Latur region in Maharashtra has such cracks.


Silica or acid lava builds high steep sided cones while basic or basaltic lava produces a flatter cone of great diameter. Sometimes the surface of the solidified lava may be smooth but usually it is quite rugged. In the case of both acid and basic lava, the escaping gases make the surface of the lava vesicular and full of small holes.
Besides, the upper surface cools early and forms a crust while lava continues to flow beneath the surface for quite some time. This results into the opening up cracks in the crust and the parts thus broken are transported downward by the moving lava.

Thus, the surface formed by the lava deposits is normally rough and irregular and full of cracks and holes into which rainwater can easily penetrate. The two contrasting surface features or structures may develop owing to differential lava flow at different levels of the volcanic materials in motion. They are known by their Hawaiian names, Aa for angular vesucular scoriaceous surface and Pahoehoe or Ropy for smoothly twisted, convolute surface which develosps on hotter and more fluid lava.

An extreme case of pahoehoe lava occurs when the hot fluid lava either erupts under water. In this case, blobs or lobes of lava upto a diameter of one metre is formed, which has tough but flexible skins (upper surface) and is piled up like sandbags or pillows while their interiors are still in molten state. This is called pillow lava. It is an evidence of sub-aqueous eruption and is commonly found on ocean floor.

Volcanic gases are composed of 60- to 90 % of steam. Other components of volcanic gases are carbon di oxide, nitrogen and sulphur di oxide, and small quantities of hydrogen, carbon mono oxide, sulphur and chlorine.

Solfatara: the stage of volcano when it emits only steam and gases is called the solfatar stage even after the eruption of lava and ashes has ceased. Sulphur content is an important feature of Solfatara stage which is named after the Solfatara volcano near Naples.


TYPES OF CENTRAL ERUPTION:

Based on the nature and intensity of eruption and on the composition of the expelled materials, central eruption is classified under six categories:


1. Hawaiian: Eruption is peaceful here. Hawaiian activity is essentially effusive. Lava is of thin basal variety. There is little or no tephra in the Hawaiian type of eruption. Sometimes, fountains of basaltic spray rise up with gases and when the wind is strong. These lava pieces are stretched i8nto long shiny threads known as Pele’s Hair in the Hawaiian islands—named after Pele, the goddess of fire in the islands. Examples are basalt plateau of Columbia and Iceland.

2. Strombolian: Moderate explosive action is found in this type of eruption. Scoriae and bombs are formed in the strombolian type. Normally eruption is intermittent but may be continuous) and fountains of lava are ejected at regular, rhythmic intervals varying from a few minutes to about an hour and flows are unusual. Stromboli is an island in the Lipri group of islands north of Sicily in the Mediterranean Sea. The lava fountain activity of Stromboli, reflected at night as a red glow on the downside of a towering steam plume has caused the volcano to be known as lighthouse of the Mediterranean. This type of eruption took place in Heckila, Iceland in 1947-48.

3. Vulcanian: The type is named after the Vulcano located in Lipri Islands. Vulcnian activity is explosive. In vulcanian type of eruption, lava solidifies and seals the mouth of the crater in between the two explosions or eruptions. Magma materials of all size are thrown with predominance of ash and dust. Eruption gives appearance of a huge cauliflower…as seen from distance. 1883 explosion of Krakatoa is considered Vulcanian type which was also followed by vesuvian type of explosion. But, that Krakatoa explosion is considered a special type of vulcanian explosion called Phreatic Eruption because it was caused by groundwater or sea water entering the magma chamber and flashing into steam.

4. Vesuvian: It is violent in nature. Lava comes out first from lateral cracks and then through main vent as the gases keep on accumulating in the main vent. Example is 1883 Krakatoa explosion. An eruption of this type was first recorded by Pliny in 79 AC during Vesuvius explosion hence sometimes it is also called Plinian type. Some consider the Vesuvian and Vulcanian types essentially the same and Vesuvius explosion of 79 AD is often cited as an example of Vulcanian eruption.

5. Pelean: It is violently explosive eruption. At the time of first eruption, the dense lava solidifies and closes the mouth of the crater and a dome is formed there. After some time it is broken and lava comes out along the hill slope and then an extremely dense mass of highly charged gaseous lava mixed with magma materials and ash flows down the slope like avalanches. These have been called Nuees ardentes or glowing clouds. Nuee ardente is soundless in spite of the fact that it has the velocity of winds in a hurricane. Example is 1902 explosion of Mt Pelee in West Indies. Nuee ardente is an andesitic lava flow.

An explosion of Pelean type differs from that of Vulcanian type in that the very hot gas and lava mixture is not thrown upwards but spreads downslope as nuee ardente.

6. Mud Volcano: In areas where petroleum or gas is found, sand and clay accompanies the gas emitting out in those areas. If water is also there, sand and clay form mud. The sand and clay is deposited at the vent and form a cone. The example is Bog-Boga in Baku area near Caspean Sea.



DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANIC LANDFORMS IN THE WORLD

There are three well known zones of volcanic landforms:

A. Mid-oceanic Ridge: Upwelling Zone
B. Subduction Zone
C. Intra-plate volcanic/ seismic zone

At the mid-oceanic ridges mafic lava upwells which widely spreads over the sea floor leading to volcanic landform.

At the subduction zone felsic lava upwells which leads to formation of Plutonic, that is, Intrusive landforms. Though there may also be volcanic, that is, extrusive landforms having felsic lava in the same region. Examples are, Mt Etna, Alaska plateau, Columbia plateau, plateau of Peru, Reunion Islands in the Indian Ocean. In the Mediterranean Sea, all islands are made up of acidic lava.

Intra-plate volcanism is found in the interior of a plate. At present a number of active volcanoes are in the intra-plate region. Examples are, Mt Kilimanjaro: the highest volcanic mountain in Africa, Mt Kenya: the second highest in Africa- both are of acidic nature; Deccan Lava plateau (formed due to basic or fissure eruption): it is the highest lava plateau in the world, Parana plateau of Brazil: the second highest lava plateau in the world, Columbia plateau: the third highest lava plateau and it is the youngest lava plateau dating early Pleistocene age. Parana plateau of Brazil and Deccan plateau of India are contemporary in age.

Volcanic Landforms are of two types:

A. Associated to central eruption
B. Associated to fissure eruption


CENTRAL VOLCANIC LANDFORMS:

Central volcanic eruption occurs through the vent and in general acid lava erupts through this and so some typical landforms are produced.

1. Cinder cone: These are smallest of the volcanoes, built entirely of pieces (pyroclasts) of solidified lava thrown from a central vent. They form where a high proportion of gas in the molten rock causes it to froth into a bubbly mass and to be ejected from a vent with great violence. The froth breaks up into small gragments which solidify as they are ejected and fall as solid particles near the vent. Finer particles are rained down on the crater, and form a cone in a circle around the crater. The slope of wall ranges from 260 to 300….in other words, cinder cone is a concave structure as a whole and its slope is 30-40 degrees. Cinder cone rarely grow to more than 150 to 300 metres in height. Growth is rapid. Monte Nuovo near Naples grew to a height of 120 metres in the first week of its existence. Puraricutin in Mexico reached a height of 300 metres in three months. Cinder cones usually occur in groups, often many dozens in an area of a few tens of square miles. They sometimes show an alignment parallel with fault lines in the underlying rock. Pushpagiri in Karnataka, Mt Kenya and Mt Kilimanjaro are dominated by pyroclasts. Barren Island in the Indian Ocean is also an example of cinder cone. Pushkar Lake is situated in a cinder cone. Lake Pushkar is an old caldera wherein the conical head has been massively eroded leading to the exposure of pyroclasts. (Image: cinder cone)

2. Acid Dome: In this case pyroclasts are covered by solidified thin layer of rhyolite. Acid domes are also called cumulo-domes or endogenous domes which rise into a crater. Examples are, Reunion Island and also islands in the Auvergne region of France. (image)

3. Basalt Dome: Sometimes basalts came out through the vent when the crustal layer is thin enough. Here concentration of pyroclasts is very low. It is basically a plateau like structure having a raised central portion which is occupied by a lake. Basalt domes and shield volcanoes are essentially the same structure, the difference being that of size only. The basaltic domes grade upwards to become shield volcanoes. Basaltic domes are exogenous domes- piled around a central vent. Examples are, Shield Island in Hawaii, Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea, Tahiti Island and Banks Peninsula in New Zealand.

4. Composite Cone: Composite cones are the characteristics of dormant volcanoes. Composite cone has alternate layers of pyroclasts and solidified lava. These are found in old cone and are known as strato-volcanoes. Most of the world’s great volcanoes are composite cones. The steep sided form is governed by the angle at which the cinder and ash stand, whereas the lava layers provide strength and bulk to the volcano. Height upto several thousand feet and slope of 20 to 30 degrees are characteristics. The slope is less than what is found in the case of cinder cones. The crater may change form rapidly, both from demolition of the upper part and from new accumulation. Examples are Fujiyama- it has three well defined such layers, Vesuvius and Stromboli in Italy, Popokatepatal in Mexico, Mt Hood in Oregon, Mt Shasta and Mt Ranier in USA, Cotopaxy in Ecuador, Mayon in Philippines. (Image)

5. Parasite Cone: Parasite cone is also the characteristics of dormant volcanoes. In this case the lava does not find passage through the main vent or the parent vent due to thick deposition and solidification of lava during erstwhile volcanic activity. Os, the lava tends to move towards subsidiary vents (owing to less pushing gaseous force) along the cracks or the fracture in the crust. Lava come out to the slope side of the parent volcano through some cracks, but at the other cracks may not give route to any amount of lava. The lateral volcano is called parasite or satellite cone. The lateral crack is a heterogeneous layer. Presence of a parent vent is the essential condition for the formation of parasite cone. Also, parasite cones would only develop if the length of the lateral vent is shorter than the main vent and the rocks are brittle. Examples are, Mt Etna- highest in Europe and has 230 satellite cones, Fusiyama has 45 satellite cones, Mt Egmont in New Zealand. Composite and Parasite cones are found on the landforms. (Image)

6. Crater and Caldera: Just above the volcanic vent there is usually a rounded bowl or funnel shaped structure which is called crater. Its diameter is normally small. The following are the causes of crater formation:

A. Violent throw off of the volcanic material
B. Process of solidification of the volcanic materials around the vent or the ring crater and their compactness promote crater formation.
C. Erosion of materials from around the vent.

In the crater depression small lakes are formed which are called maare or maars. Maar is a German word that refers to a small, near circular sheet of water situated in the explosion vent, the result of an eruption that blown a hole in the surface of the rocks, surrounded by a low crater ring of fragments of the country rock but accompanied by no extrusion of igneous rocks.
Craters can be seen in Eiffel volcanic region of Germany due to violent explosion in the western part of the rift valley of Africa. Caldera is an extensive rounded volcanic depression whose diameter is greater than that of a crater. Crater is due to geological process and when it is eroded massively it becomes caldera, that is, for caldera formation erosion is required but it can also be formed by an explosion. A huge caldera with a diameter of four miles was formed at the time of the Krakatoa explosion in 1883, the caldera of Mt Katmai in Alaska, the Crater lake of Oregon is located in the caldera in USA-it has a diameter of six miles and is of Pleistocene origin. On the top of the Barisan Highland in the northwest Sumatra, there is a huge caldera in which Loke Toba is situated. Lonar Lake, lake Nicaragua and Lake Titikaka are the other examples of caldera.


7. Nested Caldera: Also called Cone in cone. It is also associated with dormant volcano. In this case there are two or more than two calderas situated one above the other and each caldera possesses a lake. Example is Fusiyama which has three such lakes.
8. Plug Dome: Plug refers to a more or less cylindrical mass of acid lava, occupying the vent of a dormant or extinct volcano. Here acid lava is generally exposed by denudation. This landform is produced due to greater erosion within the caldera exposing the dykes which is relatively harder. In this case, the surrounding rocks are removed and the dyke remains stranded. This landform is not precisely a dome but similar to dome topography and hence this is known as plug dome. It is also called tholoid or volcanic neck. It is the intrusive feature of Plutons. Examples are found in Nicaragua in central America, in crater dome of Mount Pelee, Matinique in West Indies, the Arthur’s Seat, the site of Edinburgh in Scotland, the plugs of Auvergne in France, Hopi Buttes in north east Arizona (in Colorado plateau region) and also in the Castle Rock (near Edinburgh).

At times, eruption occurs through cracks and fractures in the rock structure. In this case basic lava is the only material that upwells in huge quantity. Felsic lava does not have enough fluidity to pass through small cracks. The upwelled basic lava spreads over a vast area due to high fluid nature of the moving magma. This process leads to the formation of large basaltic landforms. Deccan plateau of India and Columbia plateau. All the major plateaux of the world are basaltic.

Radial dykes may sometimes be laid bare by deep erosion of a volcanic neck. A classic example is Shiprock in New Mexico where volcanic neck with prominent radiating dykes are seen in north east New Mexico. Radiating dykes are also found in the Glasshouse Mountains of Queensland, north of Brisbane.

Plate Tectonics and Volcanism:

In 1968 Morgan outlined the hypothesis of plate tectonics. He divided the earth’s surface into twenty plates which are moving relative to one another above the weaker semiplastic asthenosphere as a result, it is believed, of thermal convection currents within the mantle. Le Pichon simplified the concepts of plate tectonics by dividing the earth’s surface into six major, and a few minor or small ones.

The phenomenon of volcanism takes place due to destructive plate activities along the margins of the converging plates.As the oceanic crust is forced downwards into the subduction zone, it becomes molten and forced back to the surface of the earth as a chain of volcanoes.


DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANOES

Volcanoes in Philippines

There are about 200 hundred volcanoes in the Philippines archipelago, 21 of which are active; to name a few, Mt Isarog (1900 metres) situated 280 kilometres southeast of Manila, erupted 600 years ago; Mr Natib 1200 (metres), 40 kilometres south of Mt Pinatubo is supposed to have ejected steam and therefore mild tremors were recorded by the scientists.

Eruption in Japan

Mt Unzen erupted on June 3, in 1991, killing 38 geologists who were studying the invisible activities going on within the heart of the volcano. The evacuation of nearby inhabitants was already accomplished on the warnings issued by the same group of 38 scientists, who themselves fell victims to the fury of the nature.

Eruption in Andaman Islands

A team engaged in routine inspection of light houses in the Andaman Islands sighted thick smoke spewing out of the Barren Island volcano 125 kilometres from port Blair on April 10 in 1991.

The advancing lava front had already covered a sizeable portion of the island, rendering the light houses non functional and making it virtyually impossible to use any of the landing sites.

The volcano had erupted 200 years ago. The lava thrown out on Barren Island is chemically different from the lava spewed during its previous eruption. According to geologists, the volcano activity on Barren Island has been in three phases. Eruption of submarine lava gave birth to the island 50,000 thousand years ago, creating a joint volcanic cone that covered the whole island. In the second phse, the cone was later blown off and the ejected debris was deposited on the cauldron. In the last phase, a large spatter cone has developed at the mouth of the eruption as a result of which, two volcanic cones are now visible.

The eruption on about 30th April in 1991 originated not in the older crater, but in a vent alongside it.

Narcondum Island, the other volcanic island in the region has shown no sign of becoming active. According to the geological survey of India, Nacondum Islands has no recorded history of eruption.

Two volcanic islands in the Andamans are in the Pacific Volcanic belt which extends to Japan and Philippines.

WORLD DISTRIBUTION

The zones along which earthquake, volcanic or mountain building activity is currently taking place coincide with junctions between plates.

1. Island Festoons of the Pacific: Two third of world’s active volcanoes of the world and thousands of inactive volcanoes are found in this belt. The volcanic belt surrounds the pacific ocean. It is also known as the Ring or Circle of Fire. Among the important volcanic areas of this circle of fire are Aleutian Islands, Alaskan sub-continent, Guatemala, northern and southern Andes. The Circle of Fire contacts with the Atlantic belt at two places: A. Lesser Antilles Vocanic belt. B. The one spot situated in the volcanic belt of South Antilles and which joins Patagonia with Grahamland.
2. Alpine Himalayan Belt: The belt starts from Maderia and the Canary Islands and passes through the Vesuvious, Lipri Island, the Etna and the Aegian volcanoes of the Mediterranian Sea. The belt continues further through Caucasus, Armenia, Iran and reaches Balochistan. After crossing the Himalayas the belt crosses Yunan, Myanmar, Andamans and ends in Indonesian Islands.
3. African Rift Valley: It starts from Bay of Guinea to Red Sea passing through the middle of Africa. The most active volcano in this belt is Cameroon. Mt Kilimanjaro and Kenyan volcanic mountains are beyond the rift valley but Algon is within the belt.
4. Other Areas: Mid Atlantic Cape Verde is famous among them. Volcanoes of Indian Ocean are Comoro, Mauritius and Reunion situated close to Madagascar. There are many volcanoes close to Antarctica.


Environmental Aspects of Volcanoes:

Heavy loss of life and property occurs when volcanoes erupt. About 50 active volcanoes erupt each year. About 360 million people live in the shadows of volcanoes that may explode at any time. Geologists watch only mountains they believe to be still active. Some of the world’s worst disasters have resulted from the eruption of volcanoes thought to be extinct, for example, Vesuvius in 79 AD. In 1985 eruption of Nevado del Ruiz in Columbia killed 22,000 people.

Volcanic ash may have a beneficial effect upon productivity of soil where the ash fall is relatively light. Eruption of Sunset crater near Flagstaff, Arizona in 1065 AD spread a layer of sandy volcanic ash over Barren reddish soil of the surrounding region and caused it to become highly productive because of the moisture conserving effect of the ash, which acted as mulch in the semi-arid climate.

Steep slopes provide valuable timber resources, for example, San Francisco.

A scenic feature of great beauty, attracting a heavy tourist trade, few landforms outranks volcanoes.

National Parks have been made, for example, Mt Rainier, Mt Lassen and Crater Lake.

The gas-bubble cavities in some ancient lava have become filled with copper or other ores. The famed Kimberlite rock of South Africa sources of diamonds is the pipe of an ancient Volcano.

As a source of crushed rock for concrete aggregate or railroad ballast and other engineering purposes, lava rock is often extensively used. Thus the ancient layers that make up the watching ridges of northern New Jersey have in places been vertically leveled in quarrying operations continued over several decades.